Julia Domna – The Syrian Empress of Rome

Empress Julia Domna was known for fostering learning and helping to preserve classical Roman culture.^[1] She was the wife of Emperor Septimius Severus and the mother of Emperor Caracalla. Empress Julia Domna was said to be politically astute and wielded significant influence over the two emperors.^[2] She was also known as the matriarch of the Severan dynasty.^[3] Through Empress Julia Domna, the line of the Severan dynasty continued.^[4]

In circa 167 C.E., Empress Julia Domna was born in Emesa, a city in the Roman province of Syria. Her father was Julius Bassianus, who was the high priest of the local sun god, Elagabal.^[5] Julius Bassianus was descended from a royal line of priest-kings that ruled Emesa from 72-79 C.E.^[6] Julius Bassianus’s cousin was also the king of Armenia.^[7] Thus, Julia Domna and her younger sister, Julia Maesa, were expected to marry prominent noblemen.^[8] Julia Domna was also well-educated. She knew Greek, Aramaic and possibly Latin.^[9]

Many historians believe that Julia Domna most likely met her future husband, Septimius Severus, when serving as an officer in the Roman military in Syria during the early 180s.^[10] He visited the temple at Emesa and may have become acquainted with Julius Bassianus and his daughters.^[11] Septimius Severus still would have been married to his first wife, Paccia Marciana.^[12] In the late 180s, Paccia Marciana died, leaving Septimius Severus a widow.^[13] He was recently appointed governor of Gaul.

Septimius Severus was in his forties and had no children. He had to remarry quickly.^[14] Septimius Severus looked at horoscopes to see who would be his potential bride. The horoscopes told him that it would be Julia Domna, a woman in Syria who would marry a king.^[15] Septimius Severus then sent a letter to her father, Julius Bassianus, proposing marriage. Julius Bassianus accepted it. Julia Domna was sent to Gaul and married Septimius Severus in 187 C.E. Septimius Severus was at least twenty-five years older than Julia Domna.^[16] He was very pleased with her.^[17] He found her to be beautiful and intelligent.^[18]

On 4 April 188 C.E., Julia Domna bore a son named Bassianus in honour of her father at Lugdunum.^[19] Bassianus would later be renamed Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, though he was better known as Caracalla.^[20] In 189 C.E., Julia Domna bore a second son, Publius Septimius Geta, in honour of Septimius Severus’s father.^[21] Septimius Severus was appointed governor of a province in northern Italy. After the assassinations of two Roman emperors within the span of three months, Septimius Severus decided to become the next Emperor of Rome. In 193 C.E., he marched into Rome with his army and successfully seized power without any bloodshed.^[22] Septimius Severus became Emperor of Rome. Julia Domna became empress.

During Emperor Septimius Severus’s reign, Empress Julia Domna often acted as his advisor.^[23] On 14 April 195 C.E., Emperor Septimius Severus gave Empress Julia Domna the title of “Mother of the Camp” ^[24] at a public ceremony. However, Emperor Septimius Severus also trusted another advisor named Plautianus. Plautianus and Empress Julia Domna became locked in a fierce rivalry for Emperor Septimius Severus’s political influence.^[25] In 200 C.E., Empress Julia Domna realised that she could not defeat Plautianus. She then began to devote herself to studying rhetoric and philosophy.^[26]

Empress Julia Domna created a literary circle of philosophers and geographers.^[27] One member of her inner circle was the sophist philosopher Philostratus. Empress Julia Domna commissioned him to write a biography of Apollonius of Tyana, a legendary miracle worker.^[28] Historians believe that Empress Julia Domna commissioned this work in order to stop the rising spread of Christianity by having people worship him instead of Jesus Christ.^[29] Empress Julia Domna also participated in philosophical discussions and commissioned works on subjects she was interested in.^[30] She would continue her literary circle until her death in 217 C.E.^[31]

In 205 C.E., Plautianus fell from power. He was accused by Caracalla of plotting to kill Emperor Septimius Severus and was executed.^[32] The marriage between Plautianus’s daughter and Caracalla was annulled.^[33] Empress Julia Domna regained the influence that she had lost while Plautianus was in power.^[34] However, Empress Julia Domna had to watch her two sons fight with each other for power.^[35]

In order to stop Caracalla and Geta from hating the other, Emperor Septimius Severus took Empress Julia Domna and his sons with him to Britain.^[36] Emperor Septimius Severus was suffering from gout and arthritis.^[37] He had to be carried on a litter throughout the journey. In the winter of 210 C.E., his health grew worse. On 4 February 211 C.E., Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (modern-day York). Before his death, Emperor Septimius Severus wished for his two sons to rule the Empire together.^[38] However, Emperor Caracalla planned to eliminate his brother and become the sole Emperor.^[39]

On their return trip to Rome, Empress Julia Domna tried to get her sons to reconcile, but they refused.^[40] In February 212 C.E., Emperor Caracalla told his mother he wanted to reconcile with his brother.^[41] Empress Julia Domna summoned Emperor Geta to her apartment. Once Emperor Geta arrived, Emperor Caracalla stabbed him to death.^[42] Emperor Geta died in his mother’s arms.^[43] Emperor Caracalla forbade his people to mourn his brother’s death and killed Emperor Geta’s supporters.^[44]

Even though Empress Julia Domna was angry at her son for killing his brother, Emperor Caracalla made her the most powerful woman in the Empire.^[45] He gave her control of the imperial administration and let her retain her Empress status.^[46] Emperor Caracalla often relied on his mother’s advice.^[47] Empress Julia Domna’s name appeared next to Emperor Caracalla’s name in letters to the Senate.^[48] Whenever Emperor Caracalla was absent in Rome, he left his mother in charge of the Empire.^[49]

In 216 C.E., Emperor Caracalla launched a military campaign against the Parthians. Empress Julia Domna accompanied him to Antioch to relay communications from Rome to Emperor Caracalla.^[50] In 217 C.E., Emperor Caracalla was assassinated by one of his army commanders.^[51] It is believed that the person behind the murder was Macrinus, who succeeded him as Emperor.^[52] When Empress Julia Domna received news of her son’s death, she was already suffering from breast cancer.^[53] Empress Julia Domna was distraught over her son’s death, but due to her illness, she could not openly oppose Macrinus’s accession as Emperor.^[54] She committed suicide through starvation.^[55]

In 218 C.E., Empress Julia Domna’s great-nephew, Elagabalus, became Emperor. After Emperor Elagabalus’s death in 222 C.E., her other great-nephew, Alexander Severus, became the next Emperor. He reigned until his death in 235 C.E. Thus, the line of the Severan dynasty continued not from Emperor Septimius Severus but through Empress Julia Domna. Empress Julia Domna was seen as the matriarch of the Severan dynasty.^[56] Empress Julia Domna influenced two Roman emperors and ruled over their vast Empire whenever they were absent.^[57] She is also known for her literary circle, which helped preserve much of Roman culture.^[58] It is no wonder she is considered one of Rome’s most powerful empresses.^[59]

Sources:

“Julia”. (2005). In J. S. Uglow, F. Hinton, & M. Hendry (Eds.), The Palgrave MacMillan dictionary of women’s biography (4th ed.). Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

“Julia Domna (D. after 217 C.E.)”. (2012). In M. Bunson, Facts on File library of world history: Encyclopedia of ancient Rome (3rd ed.). Facts On File.

Kampen, N. (2008). “Domna, Julia”. The Oxford Encyclopedia Women in World History. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Meckler, M. (2010). Julia Domna. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Reisman, R. M. C. (2023). “Julia Domna”. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia.